236
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
HISTOPATHOLOGICAL STUDY OF PULMONARY LESIONS IN
THE LUNGS OF WATER BUFFALOES (Bubalus bubalis) IN THE
ABATTOIR OF BASRAH PROVINCE IN SOUTHERN IRAQI
Tahssin S. Chayed* ,Methaq A. Abd Alsamad **
* Department of Agricultural Extension and Training, Ministry of agriculture , Iraq,.
**Department of Pathology and Poultry Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Basrah,Basrah, Iraq.
(Received 22 September 2020, Accepted 4 October 2020)
Keywords: Water Buffalo, Pneumonia, Basrah.
Corresponding author: tahssinalamery@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is one of the important animals in Iraq because
of its great economic value and historical symbolism, which reflects the history and the
civilisation epoch of Mesopotamia. This study has focused on the macroscopic lesions
that appear on the lungs of the water buffaloes with also an examination of these
specimens microscopically, which reflect the extent of pulmonary disease among these
animals, which form significant economic losses. This study was conducted in the
abattoir of Basrah province, south of Iraq, from October 2019 until February 2020.
Samples of 120 affected lungs (23.21%) of different macroscopic lesions were obtained
of the total 517 water buffaloes. The microscopic lesions were divided into the following:
bronchopneumonia 29 cases (24.17%) (Suppurative bronchopneumonias 14 cases
(48.28% out of 29) and fibrinous bronchopneumonias 15 cases (51.72%). The interstitial
pneumonia was 33 cases (27.5%)(Acute Interstitial pneumonia 21 cases (63.64% out of
33) and chronic interstitial pneumonia was 12 cases (36.36%), granulomatous pneumonia
5 cases (4.17%), emphysema 18 cases (15%), atelectasis 7 cases (5.83%), oedema cases 5
(4.17%), congestion 6 cases (5%), haemorrhage 11 cases (9.16%), pneumoconiosis
(anthracosis) 6 cases (5%). Pneumonia in water buffalo is the most challenging condition
to treat after it has worsened. Hence, regular veterinary examination and testing is an
essential step in managing the disease as it has become unreactive to therapies in the later
stage.
237
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
INTRODUCTION
Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is an important, economic animal characterised
by high milk and meat production (1). Bubalus bubalis generally prefers to live around
marshes or nearest areas where reeds (Phragmites australis), papyrus (Typha
domingensis), and other green plants are widely accessible (2). Water buffaloes are the
oldest animal species domesticated since the era of the Mesopotamia civilisation. In Iraq,
These animals concentrate in the southern and mid-areas of the country, particularly in
marshlands of Basrah, Mayssan, and Dhi-Qar (3, 4). In the last three decades, most of the
wetlands in southern Iraqi have been transformed into deserted lands due to over-drying
for political reasons from 1991 to 2003, as well as the severe change of climate (5, 6).
The drying of marshes has affected the biodiversity of the region, additional the breeding
of domestic animals, particularly the buffaloes (7).
After 2003, although the flow of water to the marshlands has been restored and
some animal breeders have returned, health and environmental problems have begun to
arise for humans and animals (8, 9). Due to the environmental and historical importance
of the Iraqi marshes, on 16 July 2016, UNESCO included the Mesopotamian marshes in
the World Heritage List (http://www.unesco.org). The inclusion of the marshes and
wetlands into the UNESCO List of World Heritage encouraged experts to provide
improved service in all Iraqi fields (10), including the field of veterinary medicine (11).
Hence, this research aimed to classify and explain pulmonary lesions macroscopically
and microscopically of buffaloes slaughtered in Basrah abattoir.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Out of the 517 lungs of water buffalo lungs investigated at the Basrah abattoir in
the south of Iraq, 120 lungs were diagnosed with macroscopic lesions, from the period
October 2019 to February 2020. Immediately after the slaughter, a comprehensive gross
examination of buffaloes’ lungs was conducted, and lesions were recorded. Samples were
obtained from the affected lungs and preserved in 10% formalin for the histopathological
processes, according to (12).
238
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
RESULTS
According to the macroscopic observations were seen on the lungs of the infected
animals, and based on the microscopic examination of the affected lungs, the results were
divided into table 1:
Table 1: The Percentage of lesions and the numbers.
No. Types of lesions Number Percentage
(%)
1. Bronchopneumonia 29 24.17
a-suppurative Bronchopneumonia 14
b- fibrinous bronchopneumonia 15
2. interstitial pneumonia 33 27.5
a- Acute interstitial pneumonia 21
b- chronic interstitial pneumonia 12
3. granulomatous pneumonia 5 4.17
4. Pulmonary emphysema 18 15
5. Atelectasis 7 5.83
6. Congestion 6 5
7. Haemorrhage 11 9.16
8. Oedema 5 4.17
9. Pneumoconiosis (anthracosis) 6 5
Total 120 100%
239
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Bronchopneumonia 29 cases (24.17%) (Suppurative bronchopneumonias 14 cases
(48.28% out of 29 cases) and fibrinous bronchopneumonias 15 cases (51.72% out of 29
cases), interstitial pneumonia cases 33 (27.5%) (Acute Interstitial pneumonia 21 cases
(63.64% out of 33 cases) and chronic interstitial pneumonia was 12 cases (36.36%),
granulomatous pneumonia 5 cases (4.17%), emphysema 18 (15%), atelectasis cases 7
(5.83%), oedema cases 5 (4.17%) congestion 6 cases (5%), haemorrhage 11 cases
(9.16%), pneumoconiosis (anthracosis) cases 6 (5%).
In the current study, out of 120 affected lungs, 29 cases (24.17%) of
bronchopneumonias were observed. In 14 cases, suppurative bronchopneumonia was
(48.28% out of 29 cases), whereas in 15 cases, fibrinous bronchopneumonia was reported
(51.72% out of 29 cases).
The affected lung was highly congested and oedematous in the fibrinous
bronchopneumonias; it gave the lung the dark red colour. The fibrin materials
accumulated in the intralobular septa, allowing the lung to have a marble appearance.
Besides, the accumulation of the fibrin on the pleura, yellowish zones formed on the
surface of a deep red lung (figure 1). Microscopically, there was an accumulation of
fibrin in the alveoli with lower numbers of inflammatory cells (fig. 2). The Suppurative
bronchopneumonia was distinguished by purulent materials that cause blockage of the
airways within bronchi, bronchioles, and alveolar ducts (fig. 3). Microscopically, there
were abundant neutrophils, macrophages, and cell debris which obliterated most lumens
of alveoli, bronchiole, and bronchi with a lesser amount of fibrin (fig. 4).
Interstitial pneumonia was recorded in 33 cases (27.5%). In this study, Acute
Interstitial pneumonia was recorded in 21 cases (63.64% out of 33 cases) either chronic
interstitial pneumonia was noticed in 12 cases (36.36% out of 33 cases).
In Acute Interstitial pneumonia, The lungs were macroscopically heavy, firm, and
pale in appearance; in the cross-section, the lung has a meaty appearance (fig.5).
Microscopically, alveolar walls were thickening as a consequence of oedematous fluid,
and leakage of erythrocyte, with the congestion blood vessels, and formation of hyaline
membranes that attached to the alveolar walls, which are the hallmark of acute interstitial
pneumonia. There was hyperplasia of the pneumocytes II to substitute the destruction of
the two types of pneumocytes (fig.6). In the chronic interstitial pneumonia, the lungs
240
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
appeared more firm in palpation than acute cases. Microscopically, the fibrosis occupied
some regions of the lung tissue (fig. 7).
Granulomatous pneumonia is shown in 5 cases (4.17%) from 120 affected lungs.
Granulomatous pneumonia macroscopically was distinguished by firm palpation, with
nodules protruding from the surface of pulmonary tissue, besides they were wellcircumscribed
from the healthy lung tissues, their colours were often darker than usual.
The lesions were distinguished microscopically by several concentric circular regions,
with a significant number of epithelioid, giant cells, and multinucleated cells on the rings,
all encircled by fibre tissue (fig.8).
Emphysema was detected in 18 (15%) of this study. Interstitial emphysema had
macroscopically characterised by the distension of interlobular septa because of air
accumulation inside them. Either Alveolar emphysema demonstrated with multiple air
bubbles were trapped in pulmonary parenchyma and emerging from external lung tissue.
Microscopically, several alveolar walls had destroyed and merged into much larger
spaces than normal alveoli. The walls of almost all of the alveoli were thin and atrophic
(fig.9).
Atelectasis was observed in 7 cases (5.83%) out of 120 affected lungs. The lungs
were firm in texture in one or both of the lungs. The alveolar sacs appeared
microscopically decompressed, and their overall shapes were unorganised, and their
typical architecture was lost (fig.10).
Of the 120 cases, there were 5 cases (4.17%) of oedema. The lungs were
macroscopically heavy, pale in colour. For extreme cases, the lungs were severely
distending with rounded edges (fig.11). The alveoli were microscopically filled with
homogenous eosinophilic fluid with the thickening of interlobular septa (fig.12).
Congestion was identified in 6 cases (5%), whereas haemorrhage was in 11 cases
(9.16%) of 120 affected lungs in the present study. The lungs were severely congested
macroscopically (fig. 13), While in the haemorrhagic lung, there was severe bleeding
during the cross-section (fig. 14), and in one case, a petechial and ecchymotic
haemorrhages were reported (fig. 15). The blood vessels were microscopically congesting
with blood, but in haemorrhagic cases, there was a leakage of erythrocytes in the alveoli,
alveolar ducts and interstitial tissues (fig. 16).
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
In this study, Pneumoconiosis (anthracosis) was reported in 6 case
total of 120 affected buffaloes’ lungs. The macroscopic lesion was characterised by the
appearance of black pigments spreading as fine points across the lungs, which, due to the
strength of pigmentation, often transformed into grey colour (
black particles spread in the lumen of alveoli, alveolar walls, and the bronchiolar walls
with the presence of the pigment
interstitial tissues and sometimes leakage of erythrocyte
Figure (1): Macroscopic appearance of severe congestion in the lung. A
appears dark red, the interlobular septa are broad and prominent and tend to be yellowish
241
fig. 17). Microscopically,
pigment-laden macrophages—infiltration and oedema in the
erythrocytes (fig. 18).
cases (5%) out of a
A- The lung
242
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (2): A- Microscopic observation of the fibrinous bronchopneumonia (E&H, 10x).
B- The alveoli are filled with fibrinous materials (white arrows) with few multinucleated
inflammatory cells (black arrows) (E&H, 40x).
Figure (3): Macroscopic appearance of lung abscess. The cut surface shows purulent
exudate.
243
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (4): A- Microscopic observation of the suppurative bronchopneumonia (E&H,
10x). B- The alveoli are filled with multinucleated inflammatory cells (E&H, 40x).
Figure (5): A- Macroscopic appearance of interstitial pneumonia in the lung. B- The cut
surface shows the meaty appearance of the pulmonary tissue.
244
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (6): Acute interstitial pneumonia in low magnification shows the thickening of
the alveolar walls as well as infiltration of inflammatory cells in the interstitial septae
(black arrows) (E&H, 10x).
Figure (7): Chronic interstitial pneumonia in low magnification shows the fibrosis; the
lung lost its typical architecture (Mallory’ stain, 10x).
245
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (8): A- microscopic observation of granulomatous pneumonia (E&H, 4x). BCentral
necrosis area (yellow arrow) with the aggregation of inflammatory cells (black
arrow) (E&H, 10x).
Figure (9): microscopic observation of emphysema. The walls of nearly all the alveoli
are remarkably atrophic, thin and destructed (black arrow) (E&H, 4x).
246
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (10): A- low magnification of atelectasis (E&H 4x). B- The alveoli are depressed,
and the alveolar spaces are lost (black arrows) (E&H, 10x).
Figure (11): Macroscopic appearance of the oedematous lung. The oedema fluid
distends the lungs, forming rounded edges (black arrows).
247
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (12): microscopic observation of oedema. The alveoli fill with eosinophilic fluid
(black arrows)(E&H, 10x).
Figure (13): Macroscopic appearance of severe congestion. The whole lung appears dark
red with rubbery palpation.
248
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (14): The gross appearance of severe haemorrhage in the lung. Severe
haemorrhage occurred during the cut section.
Figure (15): the gross appearance of petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhages in the lung
(black arrows).
249
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (16): microscopic observation of pulmonary haemorrhage (E&H, 10x).
Figure (17): Macroscopic appearance of anthracosis in the lung. The lung appears
greyish with the presence of small black discolouration (white arrows).
250
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Figure (18): A- The low magnification of the anthracosis in the lung (E&H, 10x). BHigh
magnification shows the presence of carbonic materials in the alveoli and alveolar
septae (white arrows) with leakage of erythrocytes (E&H, 40x).
DISCUSSION
In general, there is a lack of scientific investigation into water buffalo diseases in
Iraq, particularly respiratory disease studies, despite its large population and the
substantial economic wealth, along with its historical characteristics, which depict the
history and civilisation of Mesopotamia (13).
Out of 517 Water Buffaloes’ lungs were studied in the abattoir of Basrah province
in southern Iraq in the research study. One hundred twenty (120/517) or (23.21%)
pulmonary lesions have been identified macroscopically and microscopically. The lesions
were classified into bronchopneumonia, interstitial pneumonia, granulomatous
pneumonia. Besides, they were subdivided into the types of exudates, either fibrinous or
suppurative, circulation disturbances (oedema, haemorrhage, and congestion),
abnormalities of inflation (emphysema, atelectasis).
251
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
The result of this study agreed with that of (14) who noted (20.53%) of the
histopathological changes of the lung buffalo in south-western Iran. This similarity of the
ratio is due to similar environmental and climatic conditions between the west and southwestern
regions of Iran and Basrah governorate (15).
While This study revealed disagreement with (16), who identified 105 of the 917
buffalo lungs, which were gross pneumonic lesions in the slaughterhouses of Basrah,
Dhi-Qar, and Mayssan in southern Iraq during the period from October 1989 to March
1990, due to the factors affecting the buffaloes ecosystem over the last three decades, the
results of the current study may differ:
Most Iraqi Marshlands were dried after 1991 for political purposes, followed by
climatic and environmental changes, leading to a decline in natural plant sources like reed
and papyrus (9). Moreover, the lack of agricultural rehabilitation led to the reduction of
large areas of agricultural land (6,17).
These reasons had changed the way of raising buffaloes from the open-ended method
in vast areas within the marshes to the raising of buffalo in the edges of marshlands in
closed sheds (confined system) that do not contain any sanitary conditions for the animals
(18). Animal breeding in closed areas (confined system) is accompanied by overcrowded
and lack of airflow, increasing in summer high temperatures that cause increasing the
animal’s respiration rate (19,20).
Besides, there is no clear plan for preventive vaccination programs in the marshes,
which helped in the spread of diseases, especially respiratory ones. All of the above
reasons may support the increase in infection rates (21,11). Also, the present study differs
from other southern Asia studies. In India, (22) reported (29.28 %) of pulmonary lesions
from 1728 total deaths buffaloes from 28 livestock farms in 14 Indian states. In
Bangladesh, (23) simultaneously observed (37,5%) pneumonic water buffalo lesions. (24)
reported (30.92%) pulmonary lesions in the east and southeast of India. This increase in
the incidence of pulmonary lesions in the researches which were carried out in the
regions of Southern Asia may be due to the geographical position, ages of animals,
gender, and breeds (24).
252
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
In the present study, 29 cases (24.17%) of the total number of 120 cases of
bronchopneumonia were reported. Fibrinous bronchopneumonia was 15 cases (51.72%),
whereas suppurative bronchopneumonia was 14 (48.28%). (16) reported that
bronchopneumonia in 43 cases (40.95%) (fibrinous bronchopneumonia 28 cases and
suppurative bronchopneumonia in 15 cases) of 105 affected buffaloes’ lungs out of 917.
In comparison, (24) reported bronchopneumonia in 54 cases (17.82%) from 303 affected
lungs out of 980 water buffaloes (fibrinous bronchopneumonia 16 (29.63%) and
suppurative bronchopneumonia in 38 (70.37%). (14) reported 79 cases of
bronchopneumonia (27.72%) of 333 infected lungs out of (1622) water buffaloes, 55
cases of fibrinous bronchopneumonia (69.63%) and 24 cases of suppurative
bronchopneumonia (30.37%). (25) noticed 22 cases of fibrinous bronchopneumonia
(34.92%) out of Egypt’s 63 buffaloes lungs. The present study agrees with (14), but it
disagrees with both (16) and (25), the first recorded a high incidence of
bronchopneumonia and the second reported a low incidence of fibrinous
bronchopneumonia.
In the current study, interstitial pneumonia was observed 33 (27.5%). (23) observed
chronic interstitial pneumonia in (3.75%) from 30 affected lungs out of 80 water
buffaloes. From 333 affected lungs, (14) reported interstitial pneumonia in 201 cases
(60.36%), while (25) reported broncho-interstitial pneumonia in 14 cases (22.22%) in 63
affected lungs out of 88 water buffaloes.
The result was compatible with (25). In comparison, the results largely contrasted
with the results of (23,14).
In the current study, the incidence of granulomatous pneumonia is 5 cases (4.17%),
this result is consistent with (16) who noted in 3 cases (4.41%) out of 105 affected lungs,
on the other hand, it differs from (24) who recorded Granulomatous pneumonia in one
case (0.33%) out of 303 affected lungs.
Emphysema was noticed in 18 cases (15%) in the current study. That result was
reasonably compatible with the incidence of pulmonary emphysema (13.04%) in water
buffaloes by (26). However, the results of this study differed significantly from the
results were obtained by (23,27), who reported emphysema in buffaloes (5%) and
(1.71%), respectively.
253
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
Atelectasis was reported in 7 cases (5.83%) of examined lungs.
This ratio was stated by (28), who reported atelectasis in bovine lungs (5.03%), while it
contrasted with (26) who noted atelectasis in (13.04%) in buffaloes’ lungs.
Oedema has been identified in 5 cases (4.17%) in the current study out of 120
affected lungs. However, (23,24) reported oedema (3.75%) and (3.30%), respectively.
Compared to (27), who recorded a low rate of oedema (1.20%).
In the present study, congestion was noticed in 6 cases (5%). Macroscopically, the
lungs were severely congested. Microscopically, the blood vessels were engorged by
blood. In comparison, (28) reported congested lung (7.89%) and (27) recorded (8.69%).
Haemorrhage was noticed in 11 cases (9.16%) of 120 affected lungs.
Macroscopically, there were significant congestions of the lungs and one occurrence of
petechial haemorrhage. Microscopically, there were leakages of erythrocytes in the
alveolar lumen, alveolar ducts, and interstitial tissues. (27) reported (2.39%), whereas
(26) recorded pulmonary haemorrhage (17.39%).
In one case, Petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhage has been reported. It
characterised by various sizes of bloody foci distributed randomly throughout the lung.
According to (34), This case may occur due to endocarditis.
In the current study, there have been 6 cases of anthracosis (5%) out of 120
infected Buffaloes’ lungs. (27) noticed 3 cases (0.26%) of affected lungs in water
buffaloes. As well as, (29), with samples from two abattoirs of Kadapa (India), reported
anthracosis in 2 cases (1.66%) out of 120 sheep’s lungs without any notable gross
discolouration. Also, (30) noticed 3 cases of anthracosis (0.78%) out of 380 pneumonitic
cattle’ lungs (Bos indicus) in Rajasthan, India. In comparison, (31) observed a high
incidence of anthracosis in 43 cases (28.67%) out of 150 camels’ lungs in Najaf-Abbad,
in Esfahan province of the western region in Iran.
This condition is caused by animal husbandry in areas with air pollution by large
proportions of carbon particles where emitted from factories and industrial areas (32), as
well as by the raising of animals in enclosed, crowded, low ventilated areas with high
exposure of inhaled dust (33).
254
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
دراسة نسیجیة مرضیة فی الافات الرئویة للجاموس النھری فی مجزرة محافظة البصرة جنوبی
العراق
تحسین سعود جاید*، میثاق عبد الرضا عبد الصمد**
*وزارة الزراعة فی العراق ، دائرة الإرشاد الزراعی والتدریب ، البصرة
**فرع الامراض وامراض الدواجن، کلیة الطب البیطری، جامعة البصرة، البصرة، العراق
الخلاصة
یعتبر الجاموس النھری من الحیوانات المھمة وذلک لاھمیة الاقتصادیة الکبیرة ولرمزیتھ التاریخیة التی تمثل
تاریخ وحضارة بلاد ما بین النھرین. ھذه الدراسة سلطت الضوء على الافات العیانیة الظاھرة على رئات حیوانات
الجاموس ودراستھا نسیجیا حیث تعکس الافات الرئویة شدة الاصابة بالامراض التنفسیة التی تسبب خسائر اقتصادیة
کبیرة. اجریت ھذه الدراسة فی مجزرة محافظة البصرة جنوب العراق، للفترة من بدایة اکتوبر ٢٠١٩ ، ولغایة نھایة
شباط ٢٠٢٠ . حیث تم الحصول على ١٢٠ عینة رئویة من مجموع ٥١٧ حیوان مذبوح ای بنسبة ( ٢٣.٢١ %) من
مختلف الافات العیانیة. قسمت الافات المجھریة الى : التھاب رئوی قصبی ٢٩ حالة من مجموع ١٢٠ حالة
، (% ٢٤.١٧ %)( التھاب رئوی قیحی ١٤ حالة ( ٤٨.٢٨ %) بینما الالتھاب الرئوی اللیفینی کان ١٥ حالة ٥١.٧٢ )
٦٣.٦٤ %) بینما الالتھاب الرئوی الخلالی ) التھاب رئوی خلالی ٣٣ حالة ( ٢٧.٥ %) ( التھاب رئوی خلالی حاد ٢١
،(% المزمن کان ١٢ حالة ( ٣٦.٣٦ %)، التھاب رئوی حبیبی ٥ حالة ( ٤.١٧ %)، نفاخ رئوی ١٨ حالة ( ١٥
انخماص رئوی ٧ حالات ( ٥.٨٣ %)، وذمة رئویة ٥ حالات ( ٤.١٧ %)، احتقان رئوی ٦ حالات ( ٥%)، نزف
.(%٥) رئوی ١١ حالة ( ٩.١٦ %)، التغبر الرئوی ٦
REFERENCES
1- Deng, T., Liang, A., Liang, S., Ma, X., Lu, X., Duan, A., Pang, C., Hua, G., Liu, S.,
Campanile, G. and Salzano, A., (2019). Integrative analysis of transcriptome and
GWAS data to identify the hub genes associated with milk yield trait in buffalo.
Frontiers in genetics, 10, p.36.
2- Borghese, A. (2005). Buffalo production and research (REU Technical Series 67). Interregional
Cooperative Research Network on Buffalo (ESCORENA), FAO Regional
Office for Europe, Rome.
3- Al-Saedy, J. K. M. (2014). Mesopotamian buffaloes (the origin). Journal of Buffalo Science,
3(1), 30-33.
255
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
4- Abu Tabeekh, M. A. S. A., Maktoof, A. R., & Mohsen, H. A. M. A. (2017). Solutions or
alternatives to protect livestock, especially buffalo from the risk of drought in Basra
Governorate. Canadian Journal of Agriculture and Crops, 2(2), 84-89.
5- Adriansen, H. K. (2004). (No. 2004: 26). DIIS Working Paper.
6- Chenoweth, J., Hadjinicolaou, P., Bruggeman, A., Lelieveld, J., Levin, Z., Lange, M.A.,
Xoplaki, E. and Hadjikakou, M., (2011). Impact of climate change on the water
resources of the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East region: Modeled 21stcentury
changes and implications. Water Resources Research, 47(6).
7- Richardson, C. J., Hussain, N. A. (2006). Restoring the Garden of Eden: an ecological
assessment of the marshes of Iraq. BioScience, 56(6), 477-489.
8- Al-Saad, H. T., Al-Hello, M. A., Al-Taein, S. M., & DouAbul, A. A. Z. (2010). Water quality
of the Iraqi southern marshes. Mesopotamian Journal of Marine Science, 25(2), 188-
204.
9- Al-Ansari, N., Knutsson, S., Ali, A. (2012). Restoring the Garden of Eden, Iraq. Journal of
Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering, 2(1), pp.53-88.
10- Al-Zaidy, K.J., Parisi, G., Abed, S.A. and Salim, M.A., (2019, September). Classification
of The Key Functional Diversity of the Marshes of Southern Iraq Marshes. In Journal
of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1294, No. 7, p. 072021). IOP Publishing.
11- Abu Tabeekh, M. A.; Mohsen, H. A. M.; Al Jaberi, A. A. (2017). The reality of buffalo
breeding in Basra Governorate. Journal of Buffalo Science, 6(1), 8-18.
12- Bancroft, J. D.; Suvarna, K. S.; Layton, C., (Eds.) (2018). Bancroft’s theory and practise of
histological techniques E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences.
13- Foster, B. R. (2016). The age of Agade: inventing empire in ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge.
Page: 299-300.
14- Sayyari, M., Sharma, R. (2011). Pathological and bacteriological study of lobe distribution
of lesions in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Iranian Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 5(2),
pp.125-128.
256
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
15- Madani, K. (2014). Water management in Iran: what is causing the looming crisis?. Journal
of environmental studies and sciences, 4(4), pp.315-328.
16- Thweni, M. M. (2006). Etiologic study of some pulmonary lesions in buffaloes in southern
Iraq. Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research. 5(1), 127-133.
17- Ahram, A.I. (2015). Development, counterinsurgency, and the destruction of the Iraqi
marshes. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 47(3), pp.447-466.
18- Al􀀀Mudaffar Fawzi, N., Goodwin, K.P., Mahdi, B.A. and Stevens, M.L., (2016). Effects
of Mesopotamian Marsh (Iraq) desiccation on the cultural knowledge and livelihood
of Marsh Arab women. Ecosystem Health and Sustainability, 2(3), p.e01207.
19- Potter, T., (2015). Bovine respiratory disease. Livestock, 20(1), pp.14-18.
20- Yadav, B., Pandey, V., Yadav, S., Singh, Y., Kumar, V. and Sirohi, R., (2016). Effect of
misting and wallowing cooling systems on milk yield, blood and physiological
variables during heat stress in lactating Murrah buffalo. Journal of Animal Science
and Technology, 58(1), pp.1-10
21- Mahdi, A.J. (2010). Foot and mouth disease in Iraq: strategy and control. A report submitted in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science, Kansas State
University Manhattan, Kansas.
22- Rathore, B.S. (1998). An epidemiological study on buffalo morbidity and mortality based on fouryear
observations on 18 630 buffaloes maintained at 28 livestock farms in India. Indian
Journal of Comparative Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, 19(1),
pp.43-49.
23- Akbor, M., Haider, M.G., Ahmedullah, F., Khan, M.A.H.N.A., Hossain, M.I. and
Hossain, M.M., (2007). Pathology of trachea and lungs of buffaloes. Bangladesh
Journal of Veterinary Medicine, pp.87-91.
24- Anitha Devi, M. (2011). Pathomorphological studies on lung lesions in buffaloes. (Thesis),
Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University Tirupati–517 502. (AP) (India).
257
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
25- Abdelbaset, A.E., Abd Ellah, M.R., Abd ElGhaffar, S.K. and Sadiek, A.H., (2014). Acutephase
proteins in different pathological conditions at the lungs of buffaloes.
Comparative Clinical Pathology, 23(4), pp.823-828.
26- Islam, M.S., Das, S., Islam, M.A., Talukdar, M.M.I., Hashem, M.A., Chowdhury, S. and
Asuduzzaman, M., (2014). Pathological affections of lungs in slaughtered cattle and
buffaloes at Chittagong Metropolitan Area, Bangladesh. Advances in Animal and
Veterinary Sciences, 3(1), pp.27-33.
27- Machhaliya, M.H., Patel, B.J., Joshi, D.V., Raval, S.H. and Patel, J.G., (2015).
‘Pathomorphological studies on spontaneously occurring pulmonary lesions in buffaloes
(Bubalus bubalis)’, Ruminant Science, 4(1), pp. 51–53.
28- Belkhiri, M., Tlidjane, M., Benhathat, Y. and Meziane, T. (2009). Histopathological study
and pulmonary classification of bovine lesions. African Journal of Agricultural
Research, 4(7), pp.584-591.
29- Amaravathi, M., Satheesh, K., Bharath Kumar Reddy, C. and Jyosthna, S., (2016).
Histopathological study of pulmonary anthracosis in sheep. International Journal of
Science, Environment and Technology, Vol. 5, No 5, 2016, 3249 – 3253
30- Rani, S. (2017). Occurrence and Pathology of Various Conditions of Respiratory System in Cattle
(Bos indicus). (Doctoral dissertation, Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal
Sciences, Bikaner).
31- Goodarzi, M., Azizi, S., Kouiaei, M.J. and Moshkelani, S., (2014). Pathologic findings of
anthraco-silicosis in the lungs of one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) and its
role in the occurrence of pneumonia. Kafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg, 20, pp.171-176.
32- Ahasan, S.A., Chowdhury, E.H., Azam, S.U., Parvin, R., Rahaman, A.Z. and Bhuyan,
A.R., (2010). Pulmonary anthracosis in Dhaka Zoo collections-a public health
forecasting for city dwellers. Journal of threatened Taxa, pp.1303-1308.
33- McClendon, C.J., Gerald, C.L. and Waterman, J.T., (2015). Farm animal models of organic
dust exposure and toxicity: Insights and implications for respiratory health. Current
opinion in allergy and clinical immunology, 15(2), p.137.
258
Bas.J.Vet.Res.Vol.19, No.2, 2020.
34- Selvam, G., Swamy, M., Verma, Y., Karthik, C. M., Arya, R. S. (2014). Vegetative valvular
endocarditis in an Indian buffalo. Buffalo Bulletin (June 2014), 33(2).